The aim of the study is to assess the impact of man-made modifications on the Chalakudy river system for evolving an action plan for improving the health of the river system. The action plan will be made in such a way as to make it a series of executable projects at the local level, under the supervision of the local bodies. Preparation of an action plan calls for a thorough study of the status of the several sub-systems that influence the river. The study of this river system has become very complicated partly because it is an inter-State river with a network of inter-linked dams constructed for generation of electricity and supply of irrigation and drinking water.
As a preliminary step towards the implementation of the project, attempts have been made to collect the relevant secondary data. A detailed map of the river system has been made to show the contours, all the major and minor tributaries, perennial and seasonal streams, the roads and the railway boundaries of local bodies, etc. On the basis of the assessment of the secondary source materials assembled and discussions with stakeholders, the following priority issues have been identified for detailed investigation.
The project is implemented by the Limnological Association of Kerala under the leadership of Sunny George. The local bodies in the river basin are also funding the project together with KRPLLD. A multi-disciplinary research team drawn from various research and local organisations is in position.
History of deforestation in the basin
The catchment area of the Chalakudy River comes under the administrative boundaries of four forest divisions namely Chalakudy, Vazhachal, Parambikulam, and Nenmara. The present and some of the earlier working plans of each of these forest divisions were collected. Details regarding the origin and development of the timber industry in Chalakudy have been collected. Interviews with retired officials of Forest Department, tribal people, people residing in the fringes of forests and forest labourers have started.
Present socio-economic status of the tribesfolk of the basin
Available secondary data regarding the 22 tribal settlements in the basin have been
collected. There are five different tribal groups surviving in the basin: Kadar, Malayar, Muthuva, Malamalasar, and Ulladar. The name of the colony, the number of families, population (1991 Census) and the panchayat to which the colony belongs etc., have been recorded.
Efforts are going on to plot exactly the position of the colony in the map of the river basin. Primary data from a few of the selected colonies are being collected to understand the problems resulting from the displacement of tribesfolk as a result of the development projects, depletion of minor forest products and its impact on tribal life, scarcity of drinking water, change in ethnic lifestyle and culture, etc.
Water use efficiency of irrigation schemes in the basin
Chalakudy River Diversion Scheme (CRDS) is a major irrigation scheme that has several branch canals to distribute water. The following four branch canals are selected for detailed study.
(i) Kundukuzhi padam branch canal (in the upper reach);
(ii) Chalakudy branch canal (in the middle reach);
(iii) Blachira branch canal (in the middle reach) ; and
(iv) Alathur branch canal (at the tail end).
The details regarding the length of the canal, ayacut area, number of spouts etc., for each branch canal have been noted. These branch canals and their concerned ayacuts are mapped in the detailed map of CRDS.Secondary data about the number of each Beneficiary Farmers Association and its functioning has been collected from the CADA office. Preliminary data of the agrarian transformations, water management, money spent for canal maintenance etc., have also been collected.Recent conflicts regarding the lining of irrigation canals and its impact on the availability of drinking water for the nearby people have been recorded. Details of the functioning of BFAs are being evaluated. All the lift irrigation schemes have been mapped and the following are selected for detailed study.
(i) Kannankuzhi lift irrigation scheme (upper reach)
(ii) West Chalakudy lift irrigation scheme (middle reach)
(iii) Kunnukara lift irrigation scheme (lower reach)
Water use efficiency of domestic water supply schemes
Secondary data regarding the 36 water supply schemes in the basin have been collected. On the basis of the analysis of the secondary data, three water supply schemes (one each from the upper, the middle, and the lower reaches of the river) have been selected for detailed study. Efforts are being made to evaluate approximately the quantity of water being misused and over-used and the number of water-meters not in proper working condition in the selected schemes. The areas facing acute drinking water scarcity are being mapped and the possibility of rainwater harvesting looked into. Efforts are also being made to assess the quality of drinking water through chemical analysis.
Status of tourism
All important tourist spots and the roads leading to them have been marked in the basin map. Data from various line departments are being collected to assess the intensity of tourism activity in the basin. The extent of water pollution and the number of forest fires caused by unplanned tourism are being monitored continuously.
Sand-mining
Some data about the sand auctioned from each kadavu (ferry) during the last few years by the Chalakudy Municipality and the Grama Panchayats (namely Meloor, Kadukutty, Annamanada, Kuzhur, and Puthenvelikkara) have been recorded. This information has been marked in the basin map. Unfortunately, data for the earlier years are missing in all the local bodies. Information on the cases filed by the local community and the affected persons (regarding sand mining from Chalakudy basin) before the Magistrate Court, Kochi had also been collected. Earlier, voluntary agencies, environmental protection councils, KSSP etc., had done certain studies on the impact of sand mining in this area. Although these studies are not very scientific, enormous useful data are found in them. All such data have been collected and compiled. Interviews and preliminary surveys among the sand mining workers are going on in order to assess their socio-economic problems. Details of the agitations so far made by the local public against sand mining have been recorded. Surveys are on to evaluate the extent of drinking water scarcity caused by sand mining. The extent of bank erosion as a result of sand mining is also being recorded.
Survey and compilation of selected hydrological and meteorological data
Data on the daily discharge of the river at Ambalakadavu and Chalakudy (from 1963 to 1999) were available from the hydrological section of the Irrigation Department, Thrissur circle and from the regional office of the Central Water Commission (CWC) at Arangalikadavu, Annanad (for the period 1960-1997). Rainfall data (1960-1999) from all the available rain gauge stations in the basin (namely Chalakudy, Potta, Mattathur, Karappara, Parambikulam, Peruvarippallam, Thunakadavu, Peringalkuthu, Sholayur, Thumburmuzhi, and Vettilappara) have been collected and graphs for each year have been made. Permission has been sought from the KSEB for the daily discharge data from Sholayar and Peringalkuthu Hydro-electric projects. Data regarding the utilisable yield and the total requirement of river water have been collected from CWRDM. The monsoon flow and the lean flow have also been recorded.
Survey for important historical and cultural sites related to the river
Records of such sites were searched at the historical museums, Cochin Archives, local bodies, churches, Devaswom Board, Archaeological Survey of India, Tribal Department, INTACH, and private and government plantations in the catchment area. Information regarding certain mass burial sites (between 800 BC and 100 AD), copper plates, stone inscriptions, etc., from the basin was secured. All the historically and culturally important sites along the banks of the river have been mapped. The details of the festivals and yagas related to the river among temples situated along the banks of the river have been noted. Efforts are being made to identify the local history connected with the historically and culturally important sites alongside the river. These details will be given to the local bodies and the possibilities for their conservation explored.
Status of pollution
Several pollution sources of this river have been identified and mapped. The amount of water taken daily by each industry situated alongside the river and the quantity of the wastewater sent back into this river have been evaluated. The variety and the quantity of the pesticides used in the plantations in the catchment areas of this river (mainly at Nelliampathy) have been collected from the local pesticide dealers. Data available on the pesticide residues found in the river were compiled.
Information about the history of the contamination of the water in the river as mentioned in the Development Reports of certain local bodies has been recorded. Available newspaper reports, earlier and present, about some of the pollution incidents in this river were also documented. Analysis of water and sediments for pesticide residues completed. Water was found to be without any pesticide residues (detection limit was 0.01 ppm). But the sediments were found to contain DDT, DDE, alpha BHC, gamma BHC, and Dicophol. Detailed studies are on in order to find the horizontal (along the longitudinal profile) and the vertical toxicity (in relation to the depth of sediment) levels. It seems from the preliminary survey that the deeper sediments contain higher concentrations of pesticides.
The project on Micro-level planning for sustainable management of land and water implemented by the Society for Transfer of Agricultural and Rural Technology (START) at the Bharathamala-Vattakottai watershed situated in Kodakara block of Thrissur district. The objectives of the project are: (i) to conduct micro-level studies on soil and water resources; (ii) to evolve criteria for sustainable land use and water management; (iii) to prepare a development plan for protection, conservation, and improvement of land resources for efficient and sustained agricultural production; and (iv) to implement this plan with the participation of the local people and the village panchayat. The project is carried out in two phases: in the first, all the technical studies will be completed and in phase II, the focus will be on the aspect of implementation. The total area of the watershed is 2,015 hectare having a population of 14,200 living in 2,500 households.The project has entered Phase II. Some of the interesting findings in Phase I are the following: (i) The area is under severe drought in summer though rainfall received in the watershed is very high (3190 m.m). More than 69 per cent of the rainfall received in the area flows out of the watershed as run off (ii) Out of the 15 vented cross bars (VCB) in the watershed, only two are functioning. There are 10 public ponds in the watershed and if they are properly maintained, large quantity of water can be stored during rainy season thereby increasing the water table in the surrounding areas; (iii) There are 22 public open wells and 10 public tube wells located in the watershed which serve as drinking water sources for 300 families. Most of the families depend on own wells for drinking water that get dried up for two summer months in a year.
Fifty per cent of the labour force in the watershed is associated with agricultural activities. About 90 per cent of the farmers is having land less than one acre with an average holding size of 25 cents. Common crops cultivated are rice, coconut, arecanut, rubber, banana, vegetables, and tapioca. About 72 per cent of the farmers does not irrigate their land due to lack of irrigation water, and most of them do not adopt soil and water conservation techniques. About 195 hectares are under double crop rainfall-dependent-rice cultivation. Conversion of paddy-fields for non-agricultural purposes is very common in this watershed.
Based on the agro-meteriological and compatibility studies, the implementing agency has prepared a development programme for the watershed. The main elements of this programme are: (i) gap filling by tree planting; (ii) agrostology; (iii) digging pits and trenches; (iv) Peurtoriccan type terracing; (v) repair and maintenance of existing vented cross bars (VCB); (vi) gully plugging; (vii) renovation of public ponds, desilting of drainage channels, management of village forest land; and (viii) promotion of animal husbandry. These elements of the programme are being taken up in the second phase. The strategy of implementation of this phase is to focus on (i) organisation of the people in the watershed and creating awareness among them regarding the need for watershed management, and (ii) preparation of projects for the village and the block panchayat incorporating different elements of the watershed development programme.
The project on Land and water management at the Centre for Development Studies campus implemented by the Centre for Environment and Development. The campus has felt acute scarcity of water in recent years. The nearby inhabitants raised complaints about excess pumping of ground water by the Centre. This situation led to the implementation of in situ water conservation in the campus. Land management by digging pits and trenches has been done for this purpose. The earlier strategy of water management of the campus was that of quick drainage by paving stones, bricks, etc., in the premises of the buildings. The construction work for the in situ conservation of rainwater in the campus had invited at the early stages, some resistance from the inhabitants. The resistance has waned with progress of the project; slowly the programme proved that this method has improved the beauty of the campus by good landscaping of the area and that the landscaping has proved effective for in situ water conservation.
The decision to irrigate depends on the benefit in terms of the value of marginal product of irrigation and the opportunity cost of the inputs required for the irrigated crop. However, this simple economic principle has been overlooked in the irrigation investment of the State. V. Shantakumar, in his study Irrigation demand in Kerala: some insights from a micro-level analysis, has attempted to anlayse the factors that determine the demand for irrigation in Kerala. The data for the study were collected through a primary survey of households in five panchayats situated in the command areas of Kallada and Vamanapuram irrigation projects; this information was supplemented by secondary data on land use pattern.
The analysis of the current land-use pattern shows that cultivation is not taking place in a significant proportion of the cultivable land even during periods when water or moisture in the soil is available. The current land use pattern also shows the shift towards those crops that require less water, but are more profitable. Under such a situation, provision of irrigation would not lead to a reverse shift towards water-hungry crops as envisaged in the plans of irrigation projects implemented by the State.
These insights were used for recalculating the irrigation requirements of the projects mentioned above and were found to be around half of the quantity estimated by the irrigation planners. Even this reduced requirement may not be actually demanded by the owners of small pieces of land due to their investment in non-agricultural occupations and lack of adequate investment in agriculture. Such small holders form a major chunk in the command areas. This shows the need for a realistic assessment of the existing irrigation schemes and for reorientation of irrigation planning and investment in Kerala.
Projects are designed to cover all the water resource needs of a region and they aim at ensuring active and sustained beneficiary participation in construction, management, and maintenance of projects. Despite the introduction of Command Area Development Authority (CADA), beneficiary participation is found to be poor. C. J. Joseph, in his study Beneficiary participation in irrigation water management: the Kerala experience, attempts to assess the working of Beneficiary Farmers Associations (BFAs), exploring the causes for their failure, and to suggest measures for reform.
Out of the 14 CADA projects in Kerala, Malampuzha which is the earliest and the largest project to form BFAs is chosen for the study. Eight out of the 15 canal committees are chosen for detailed enquiry. Out of 420 BFAs formed, 45 are chosen.
For both canal committees and BFAs, adequate representation is ensured, reaches-wise, encompassing upper reaches, middle reaches, and lower reaches of the main canals and branch canals. A pre-tested structured schedule is used for BFA members who are the respondents in this study. To quantify the role-performance of BFAs, the technique employed is sealogram analysis. Field survey data and data from secondary sources are made use of in this study.
The following are some of the features that have special significance for the formation and working of BFAs in Kerala: (i) CADA officials took the initiative in their formation and not in the functioning of the farmer groups; (ii) There was heavy concentration of BFAs formation in 1986 and 1987, 359 BFAs out of 420 constituting 86 per cent having been formed in these two years; (iii) The participation by the O.Ms was found just a ritual; (iv) The level of knowledge of the farmers about the existence, structure, and office-bearers of both Canal committees and Project Advisory Committees was very low. It has been observed that corrupt practices in minor civil works and absence of mass action against malpractices are not uncommon.
To assess the role-performance of BFAs, in respect of their manifold functions, they are categorised into three groups: (i) performed; (ii) partly performed; and (iii) not at all performed. The role-performance analysis, BFA-wise, in terms of Performance Index, documentary evidences, and cluster analysis, has convincingly shown that the majority of the sample BFAs belonged to below-one-third level of performance.
Twenty-seven BFAs out of 45 fall in the category of 33-38 per cent performance and, 5 in the category of 38-48 per cent performance. Only eight BFAs were found to be above one-half the level of expected performance. There were only two BFAs that showed above-60 per cent performance. On the basis of the study, the researcher has suggested several measures for improving the performance of BFAs.
Throughout India, local communities have developed traditional technologies for the conservation, storage, harvesting, and distribution of water. While under pressure of the modernisation process, such traditional technologies are, in general, fast vanishing, many are still preserved and utilised by local communities. In the project on Suramgams of north Kerala, Kamalakshan Kokkal examines one such traditional technology. Suramgam seen mostly in Kasargod district is a non-conventional ground water extraction structure. The specific objectives of the study are: (i) preparation of a systematic record of all the existing Suramgams in the northern part of Kerala; (ii) evaluation of the hydro-geographical studies of the Suramgams; (iii) estimation of their water reserve potential and water quality; and (iv) exploration of the ways and means to improve the status of Suramgams as a source of drinking water and irrigation. The study will examine the effect of the socio-economic changes including the change in agriculture on Suramgams. The researcher has prepared a complete inventory of Suramgams with their technical details. The survey to assess the level of utilisation and the factors influencing its sustainability, is in progress.
In North Malabar, farmers have been adopting micro-irrigation systems for irrigating crops such as coconut and arecanut. In his study Field-level performance of micro-irrigation, C. Thamban examines the problems of farm level adoption of this technology. Micro irrigation systems involve high frequency, low volume irrigation water application directly to the root zone to replenish the soil moisture to a desired level through a network of plastic pipes. Several farmers in the area introduced this technology for irrigating coconut with the support of the 70 per cent subsidy, under a Centrally-sponsored scheme.
The specific objectives of the study are: (i) to analyse the socio-economic profile of the adopters; (ii) to assess the extent of their knowledge about micro irrigation technologies; (iii) to delineate the factors contributing to the adoption of micro irrigation systems; (iv) to evaluate the economics of micro-irrigation for coconut; (v) to document the local adaptations/innovations; (vi) to examine the constraints perceived by the farmers, extension personnel, and dealers; and (vii) to document the successful experience of farmers.
Preliminary findings of the study show that the system is working excellently in 13 per cent of the plots; in 37 per cent it is good, in 30 per cent satisfactory, and in 20 per cent of the plots poor. The reasons identified for the poor performance include faulty layout of the system, emitter clogging, undulation in the plots, low working pressure due to plugging of filters, and not having proper light to the overhead tank. The researcher has also documented two cases in which the farmers made improvisations to the technology.
Susi Abraham in her study on Minor water bodies has examined the current status of urban water bodies. Her study shows that the Kottayam municipality has 48 minor water bodies occupying an area of 5.33 sq.km, which is about one-third of the area of the municipality. This means that a large quantity of water is being exposed to the action of sunlight and micro-organisms, thus undergoing purification. But such waterspread is undergoing rapid reduction. Observation of the minor water bodies indicates the presence of a number of organisms in them. The survey has clearly revealed that the water bodies help in mitigating floods. It is also shown that with some planning and care, it is possible to maintain water quality of a high standard in the minor water bodies thereby conserving them as an alternative source of water supply.
A study is on the Impact of urbanisation on stream flow and water recharge in Kozhikode Corporation. Kozhikode Corporation has an area of 84 sq.km with population of about 5 lakh with 52,800 residential houses (1991 Census). The city has no proper drainage, sewerage, and solid waste management systems. The canals and the wetland eco-system interlinked with the city are facing problems due to reclamation of wetlands, and discharge of waste water into the canals. In the present study, the researcher intends to examine: (i) the effect of urbanisation on hydrologic processes (especially ground water recharge and flooding) and land use changes; (ii) the developed models for application in similar situations in Kerala; and (iii) appropriate modifications in the drainage network. The study is confined to two representative micro-watersheds of the Corporation. The technical components of the programme include (i) socio-economic survey of watersheds; (ii) monitoring groundwater fluctuations; (iii) infiltration studies; (iv) flow measurements; (v) preparation of landuse maps; (vi) techno-metric survey; (vii) creation of rain-harvesting structures, and (viii) assessment of the existing condition of sanitation. The study is carried out with full support of the Kozhikode Corporation.
PASS, an Adoor-based NGO has developed an appropriate technology for utilising springs in hill areas as a source of drinking water. The organisation has also implemented a few schemes. Anil K. Rajan, in his study on Evaluation and development of the technology for rural water supply through development of natural springs conducted an evaluation of these schemes. The main objectives of this study were: (i) to evaluate the preference, cost effectiveness, and acceptability of water supply systems in natural springs; (ii) to study the impact of this programme on the health of consumers through an assessment of the quality of water in the springs prior to and after implementation; (iii) to study the impact of this programme on habits and social relations in user communities; and (iv) to assess the sustainability of this programme through community participation.
The study is based on data collected from 50 spring-based water supply schemes implemented by PASS. Both technical and social aspects were kept in mind in the selection of these springs and the data were collected through semi-structured interviews and questionnaire survey.
The key findings of the study are: (i) The Water Committees organised for springs developed prior to 1993 are not functioning effectively, when compared with those organised subsequently, the principal reason being that in the pre-1993 schemes, the beneficiaries did not have to share the cost or bear the cost of maintenance and upkeeping of the system, where as in the post-1993 schemes, these responsibilities were built into the organisational structure; (ii) The user communities are satisfied with the water delivery system of 'waste-not tap' whenever it is installed but in the case of hand pumps, they are yet to win the approval of the people due to the need for occasional replacement of plunger washer and base plate washer; (iii) Since most of these areas are located in isolated and interior areas and supply of piped water in the near future is unlikely to happen, people are happy with the system; and (iv) There is growing interest among the panchayats in this scheme since its per capita cost is less than in other conventional methods.
In the project An action research programme for improving the drinking water availability and sanitation in Akathethara panchayat, the Integrated Rural Technology Centre (IRTC), Palakkad aims at formulating a comprehensive programme for making the panchayat self-sufficient in its household water requirements and to prepare a work plan to provide a satisfactory sanitation system for the entire population of the panchayat. The total population of the panchayat is 21,514 (1991 Census) and the total number of households, 6,128. The northern boundary of Akathethara panchayat is the Western Ghats. The run off velocity in this region is very high.
A survey was carried out covering all the households in the panchayat to assess the present status of sanitation and the availability of water. The status of all perennial, semi-perennial, and seasonal wells and tanks and the other sources of water, both private and public, was assessed thrice - at the onset of summer, at the height of summer, and at the height of the monsoon. Drainage mapping was completed during the monsoon period with people's participation. A special training programme was conducted for schoolchildren of the panchayat regarding the science of rain and the conservation of rainwater. The quantity of water that flows through each canal/nullah was estimated once in a month. Project proposals for the maintenance of wells and tanks were submitted to panchayat authorities. The survey results were used to prepare a watershed development programme for harvesting of rainwater covering the entire panchayat. The project team is now engaged in the design and implementation of a pilot water-harvesting project in the panchayat.
Muthalamada is one of the most backward panchayats in Kerala. The Development Report of the panchayat has identified drinking water scarcity as the most acute problem. The geographical location (low rainfall area) and the economic backwardness of the region are pointed out as the major reasons. Natural and socio-economic hurdles prevent the people from taking initiatives to enrich or maintain even the already available fresh water sources in the area. Shailaja Nair and her team in this study on Drinking water problems of Muthalamada panchayat, Palakkad district have attempted (i) to identify the drinking water problems in terms of the number of persons affected by water scarcity, geographic obstacles, socio-economic factors, water quality problems, and nature of institutional inefficiencies; (ii) to review the status of public water supply schemes or assets created by public investment and their role in improving the drinking water situation; (iii) to identify potential sources of water supply; (iv) to identify issues like appropriate cost-effective technologies, equity considerations, and organisational set-up for sustainable operation and maintenance of public water supply schemes; and (v) to prepare a people's plan for domestic water supply in the most severely affected areas. The study is based on data collected through (i) household survey conducted to understand the socio-economic status, present sources of drinking water, level and nature of scarcity etc; (ii) resource mapping in the area to identify existing and potential sources of water; and (iii) a detailed field survey for exploring the potential for sustainable and cost-effective water supply schemes in the problem areas. The local people participated in the study actively.
Some of the interesting findings of the study are the following: (i) 70 per cent of the households in the panchayat does not own any source of safe water; and 41 per cent has to walk more than 50 meters to collect water; (ii) there is locational variation in the intensity of the problem; (iii) households with economic and social deprivation have more difficulties - they do not have own sources and have to walk more distance; (iv) among the existing wells 24 per cent dries up during summer; (v) the assets created by public investment - 69 public wells, 33 tube wells, and around 1000 public taps - cater to only 22 per cent of the households. Nearly 40 per cent of the households depends more on neighbours' wells than on public facilities.
The poor level of operation and maintenance of the public facilities seems to be the major reason for the under-utilisation of these facilities. Analysis of the responses for willingness to pay for neighbourhood-based water co-operatives showed that such participation is high in locations in which the difficulties in access to drinking water are more. These responses indicate that the local communities are unwilling to contribute towards the initial capital for development of the drinking water scheme; but once set up, they are willing to pay a user fee.
The study team has come out with a number of concrete recommendations and plans to resolve the drinking water scarcity in the panchayat that they hope will be taken up by the panchayat functionaries.
The development of dead quarries as a source of drinking water supply is the subject of research by Abdulla Pattarkadavan. Ottappalam taluk in Palakkad district has a large number of quarries either dead or operational. The dead quarries that have good catchment areas and storage facilities can be developed into water reservoirs with minimum civil works and with limited expenditure. Gravitational system of water distribution can be adopted advantageously in those locations in which people live at the lower levels of the quarry. The project attempts to (i) conduct a feasibility survey of utilising two dead quarries for water harvesting systems; (ii) to suggest suitable low-cost construction techniques; and (iii) to recommend suitable treatment methods for the harvested water, if it is meant for drinking/domestic purposes.
Several studies have indicated that drinking water is a major risk factor for the high morbidity rate in Kerala. The Kerala Water Authority, in a study conducted in 1991, pointed out that water in most of the open wells does not possess the quality standard as prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). Incidence of water-borne diseases is periodically reported from thickly populated areas, particularly during the rainy seasons. It is reported that all the sources of water including protected water supply are contaminated. It is in this context that the study An evaluation of the quality of water for drinking and domestic purposes of Kollam municipal area with reference to health and sanitary status was undertaken by M. K. P. Roy. Kollam municipality has an area of 18.48 sq.km. People here depend mainly on municipal piped water supply from Sasthamkotta Lake, and also on ground water (dug wells and ponds), tube wells, and numerous small distribution systems. The project is a micro-level evaluation study of potable water quality of Kollam municipal area together with health effects due to use of available water.
The method of study consists of two parts: the first part is an evaluation of the quality of water for drinking and domestic purposes from all sources as per the drinking water standards prescribed by WHO and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). The second part consists of a detailed survey of households to evaluate the socio-economic, environmental, and health status of people and the causes of the poor quality of water they consume.During the course of the investigation, physico-chemical characteristics of water like colour, taste, odour, total dissolved solids, turbidity, pH, conductivity, chloride, total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, potassium, sodium fluoride, chlorine, iron sulphate, and the other inorganic constituents of health significance such as arsenic, cyanide, lead, zinc, cadmium, mercury, chromium, pesticides, and detergents were analysed for a period of one year as per the standard norms.
Bacteriological tests were carried out carefully under sterilised conditions. The Most Probable Number (MPN) was calculated from the number of positive tubes of dilutions from the MPN index tables in standard methods (APHA 1985).
Water-sampling stations were selected from different water sources including dug wells, ponds, tube wells, protected piped water supplies like municipal water supply, Kollam railway water supply, drinking water from District Hospital, and bus stand, and small distribution systems like water supply from Fatima Mata National College. These stations were selected mainly based on geographical and environmental characteristics.
Household survey questionnaire was designed after discussions with experts from various institutions including Achuta Menon Centre for Public Health Studies and Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram. The domestic survey was based on a status-based approach. There were three main statuses in the domestic household survey procedure. These were classified into socio-economic status, environmental status, and health status. The following are the findings of the Ist phase of the study.
(i) All sources of drinking water available in Kollam municipal area are unsafe for drinking purpose as per standards prescribed by BIS and WHO guidelines.
(ii) Open dug wells have been found heavily contaminated with total and faecal coliforms.
(iii) Tube well water from Kollam District Hospital contains high level of bacterial contamination.
(iv) Water from Kollam Railway Station is not safe for drinking.
(v) Natural ponds in Kollam are being converted into multi-storeyed building complexes by Government agencies and the remaining areas of these ponds are being used as dumping grounds of municipal and other domestic wastes.
(vi) Outbreaks of water-borne diseases are common in the municipality especially in thickly populated wards irrespective of seasons.
(vii) Leaky pipelines are one of the major causes of the piped-water contamination. These pipelines pass alongside drainage canals in most of the municipal wards.
(viii) Non-sanitary latrines were found the main pollution source in dug wells of households.
(ix) There exists no system of regular monitoring of drinking water quality in Kollam either by the Government or by any other agency.
V. Narayanan Nair has examined the Water quality in the coastal areas of Kollam and Alappuzha districts. This study on Kollam district is confined to Clappana and Alappad panchayats in the northern part of the district.
Physiographically, the area comes in the lowland and coastal plain category, where the evolution of landforms is associated with marine processes. Micro-level inquiry into the physiography reveals that the landforms here are characterised by an array of ridges and runnels. Ridges and runnels are alternately arranged almost parallel to each other and the whole system is found to be sub-parallel to the coast. The shallow groundwater in Alappad area is of poor quality and it deteriorates during March-April.
In Clappana area, water quality is, in general, good along the eastern parts, but it turns to be saline near the kayal area. Moreover, there is the problem of precipitation of iron in groundwater. The iron content is not uniform in the area and in many places it is much higher than the stipulated drinking water standards. In the shallow aquifers of the area, the groundwater is contaminated by coliform bacteria and E. Coli. This microbial population of groundwater sources has an immediate effect on the health of the people.His study conducted in the coastal parts of Alappuzha district on the quality of ground water is confined to different aquifers. The shallow unconfined and confined aquifers contain good quality water, but these aquifers are prone to pollution. The water supply system draws water from deeper aquifers and in many places this contains higher concentrations of sodium and chloride. A study on the fluoride content indicates that the groundwater in the shallow aquifers contains lower concentration ranging between 0.1 and 1.3 ppm. But the water in shallow confined and deeper-confined aquifers contains higher concentrations of fluoride up to 4.5 ppm. The higher concentration of fluoride in drinking water around Alappuzha town has resulted in endemic dental fluorosis. A large number of children suffer from dental fluorosis in this area. Instances of both permanent and deciduous teeth are observed. This is a serious problem that has to be looked into by authorities seriously and proper steps taken to supply pure drinking water.
The increasing demand for water has drawn attention to development of groundwater resources in coastal areas of Kerala. The main problem encountered in the coastal belt is the extremely low quality of ground water due to the influence of the adjacent sea. The salinity intrusion in the coastal belts influences the socio-economic status of the community. Jose Ferdinand, in his project Effects of ground water fluctuations by salt water intrusion in coastal belt of Malappuram and Thrissur districts, is looking into the groundwater table fluctuations along the coastal belt of Chamravattam-Elakkara region and he proposes to estimate the extent of salinity intrusion, ground water availability, and its utilisation pattern. The study also intends to assess the quality of water with a view to suggesting suitable well-spacing and water-harvesting structures in appropriate places.
Causes and consequences of the pollution of waterbodies have also received attention in KRPLLD research. Abey George, in his study on the Politics and pollution of the river Chaliyar makes an attempt in this direction. A Rayons factory was established in 1958 by one of the industrial houses of India, on invitation by the first cabinet of Kerala on the banks of the river Chaliyar, viz. Mavoor Gwalior Rayons. This industry has remained the centre of controversy since its inception. A full range of issues from political decisions to policy options in establishing such a factory, the suitability of following such a mode of industrialisation as the basis of development, the protection and privileges given to the organised workers and trade unions as against unorganised workers, the subsidised supply of natural and forest resources, the loss of common property resources to the people, and the consequences of the pollution of the river caused by the industry have come up for debate during the past 40 years.
The river Chaliyar and the people who live in the area who are affected by air and water pollution have been the victims throughout the period. The objective of the study is to document the socio-economic consequences of the pollution on the people living in the affected areas of the river on the one hand and to discuss the policy decisions and practices of the government regarding the supply of forest products and other concessions extended to the factory, the strategy adopted by the factory in violating the pollution rules and regulations, and the responses of the factory workers, the local civil organisations, and political parties towards this grave environmental crisis, on the other.In the review, we have presented an outline of the studies initiated in the area of water resources development. These studies were presented in a workshop of all the stakeholders in May 2000. Based on the deliberations in the workshop, a number of constraints for water resources development was identified and an agenda for future research developed.
The major constraints identified include: (i) misconceptions about supply of and demand for water in Kerala; (ii) lack of basic data on supply and demand; (iii) lack of state-of-the-art studies on the topic; (iv) lack of awareness of the root causes of water shortage; (v) lack of co-ordination of departments involved in water management; and (vi) lack of specific law concerning water bodies. The agenda for research and action comprised the following: (i) generation of baseline data including gathering and codification of existing data; (ii) site-specific estimation of requirements of water for households, and agricultural and industrial needs; (iii) computation of water balance; (iv) documentation of conflicts among users of upstream and downstream canals and rivers; (v) rehabilitation of catchment areas and river banks; (vi) estimation of quantity, limit, and distribution across panchayats of sand-mining and clay-mining; (vii) legal and local aspects of river pollution; (viii) a holistic river-basin study for watershed management; (ix) documentation of traditional water management practices; (x) study of deprivation of water resources; (xi) studies on fresh water; and (xii) the gender dimension of watershed management.
Kerala's environment and biodiversity are characterised by high levels of degradation coupled with poor efforts for conservation of the resource base. Civil organisations in the State have been exerting pressure at the micro and macro levels for the protection of the environment and conservation of the resource base. One of the key inputs needed to strengthen such efforts is the supply of key information and data on the environment and biodiversity issues at the local level. With this objective in mind, the Programme has initiated a number of studies. An overview of these studies is given below.