Land use and cropping pattern
The project by R. Mahesh, Causes and consequences of change in cropping pattern: a location-specific study attempts to address the sustainability issue of the existing cropping pattern in the State in the light of a micro-level field enquiry. The study begins by listing various causes and consequences of the change in the cropping pattern of the State as perceived by professionals and experts in the field. Some proximate factors causing changes in the cropping pattern are: (i) demand for land for non-agricultural purposes; (ii) State intervention in the form of abolition of food zones and distribution of rice at subsidised price and also the development support extended to commercial crops; (iii) technological changes; and (iv) increase in the pressure on land. The consequences are: (i) drastic decline in the area and production of rice; (ii) increase in the area under cash crops; (iii) decline in the employment opportunities of agricultural workers; and (iv) displacement of women labourers from agriculture.
The study attempts to compare these perceptions of the professionals with those of farmers. Using both Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods in a hamlet of Pallichal panchayat in Thiruvananthapuram district, the study explores the changes that have taken place in the agricultural sector during the past few decades and attempts to identify the causes and consequences of the changes. The study points out that the changes that have taken place in the cropping pattern could not be seen as phenomena isolated from changes in the farming system determined by factors such as land ownership patterns, access to resources, labour relations, livelihood strategies, farming practices, and traditions and culture.
The impacts of such changes were grouped under (i) economic (changes in production, farm income, employment, women's participation etc.); (ii) social and cultural (cultivator-labour relation, negative attitude to agriculture, loss of traditional skills, etc.); and (iii) environmental (loss of local varieties of seeds and breeds, and trees, receding water tables, decrease in biodiversity, etc.). The study has been completed and published.
Another study on similar lines is the one made by Thomas Varghese entitled A study on cost of production of rice and changes in tenurial relations in Kerala: a case study of two panchayats in Kuttanad taluk. The attempt is to identify land ownership and leasing patterns of lessees and lessors and the extent of conversion of paddy-fields. The study area is confined to two panchayats (Thalavady and Kaduthuruthy) with similar characteristics in the Kuttanad region. The survey captures the structural changes of landholdings in the area in terms of number, size, concentration, resource endowments, tenancy practices, and their economic implications. These changes have had significant effects on productive efficiency, income distribution, and consumption.
The study provides convincing evidence on the decline of peasants consequent on the fall in the area of their cultivation to uneconomic size. It was observed that a relatively large proportion of land holders, whose income levels are not low, also resort to leasing in as a means to keep their income at reasonably high levels; the marginal farmers, the landless, and the unemployed rural households resort to leasing in as a survival strategy.
The findings indicate that leasing in is not prevalent among all categories of holders. The cultivators whose own holding is 50 cents on the average or less form the majority of the lessees; large cultivators owning more than one acre were not found among the lessees at all. After examining the trends in the labour market, the study observes increasing occupational and spatial mobility of agricultural workers and growing unionisation of rural labour.
The farming community possesses a stock of traditional skills and indigenous knowledge. This technical know-how sustained through generations could, if preserved, be used for the betterment of mankind. The ongoing project on Identification and analysis of endangered skills in the farming system of Thrissur district by Geethakutty is an attempt to document endangered and extinct skills in the farming system. Field-level study indicates that there is a dearth of skilled labour for undertaking many traditionally practised farming activities. Such endangered and extinct skills are identified and their field level feasibility test is carried out under the study.
The ongoing study on Assessment of hilltop agriculture at Vattavada panchayat of the highranges by Mini Raj is an attempt to document the evolution of cultivation practices prevalent in hilltop agriculture. The tribal inhabitants of these extensive highrange tracts have evolved a wealth of cultivars, skills, and knowledge in utilising their surroundings for survival. The documenting of this relevant agricultural know-how, the energy efficient practices, and the seed stock of cultivars would be useful for its replicability in areas where similar characteristics prevail.
The ongoing project by Thomas P. Thomas, on Survey and studies on restoration of unutilised paddy-fields in Thottappuzhassery grama panchayat, attempts to identify the causes for degradation of paddy-fields in Thottappuzhassery grama panchayat of Pathanamthitta district. The study has been taken up in the context of the fact that 80 per cent of the total area of paddy-fields in the region remains uncultivated.
P. G. Padmanabhan, N. C. Narayanan, and K. G. Padmakumar have made an Assessment of economic viability of an intensive integrated sustainable resources use model for Kuttanad. Kuttanad region is a unique agricultural tract mainly centred around rice cultivation and to a certain extent, coconut and fish farming. The artificial controls (Thottappally spillway and Thanneermukkam salt water barrier) have altered the hydraulic system of the region. In addition, the unremunerative rice cultivation has toppled its economic viability. The research findings indicate that there is a disproportionate increase in the total input cost compared to increase in the value of output. As a result, net returns of farmers have tended to fall and even turn negative.
The ecological and economic crisis of the region has led to several experiments on innovative farming such as crop rotation, mixed farming, and recycling . Integrated farming with cattle and poultry rearing in combination with rice-fish rotation is found to yield thrice the level of profitability of double crop rice cultivation in the Kumarakom panchayat. Besides increase in production and profitability, the integrated farming practices also reduce the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides. The critical environment parameters such as pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Carbon Dioxide (Co2), and turbidity levels were found to favour high biomass productivity. Improvement in the paddy-field soils is evident from the high organic carbon accommodation in the sediments. The plant nutrient level (N:P:K) in the integrated system was high in addition to the high nutrient levels in the overlying water. The new model has been adopted by a few padasekharams since it is ecologically superior to and economically more viable than the conventional rice farming system. The study also indicates the nature of policy steps needed to popularise the integrated farming model. An important suggestion is the need for close integration and co-ordination of the functioning of agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, and other related departments for popularising the model among farmers.
A project by V. Balachandran on the status of organic farming in Kerala and its viability as a model for sustainable development, on the organic farming situation in the State. The study examines the viability of organic farms as a model for sustainable agriculture. It has developed a database on organic farming besides carrying out a comparative exercise with modern farms in terms of technical feasibility and financial viability. For case studies, two farmers each from southern, central, northern, and high altitude zones were selected. In the special zone for problem areas one farmer each from Attappadi, Kuttanad, Onattukara, and Pokkali regions was selected.
The plots in which organic farming is practised are found to produce healthy nutritive food besides reducing pest infestation, and labour requirements and ploughing, to cause less soil erosion and to increase the number of natural pest-controlling species. Fertiliser management is one of the crucial aspects in organic farming. Fertiliser management methods adopted include: use of organic manure comprising cowdung, wood ash, bone meal, poultry wastes, and green manure; N-fixing crop cultivation, recycling of organic matter, and animal excreta; mulching and composting; and maintenance of tree crops as a source of green manure and use of bio-fertilisers. In pest management, most of the organic farmers do not use any pesticides.
The belief is that nature takes care of pests and diseases. But in the case of certain widespread and contagious diseases that affected crops like coconut, arecanut, pepper etc., even organic farmers have resorted to the use of some bio-pesticides and bio-treatments. The study has also prepared a detailed list of planted species and crops grown in the organic farms. It observes the need for a better marketing strategy for the produce of organic farms.
The ongoing project by C. K. Karunakaran on The agricultural-silvicultural practices in Koipuram grama panchayat makes an assessment of the existing agri-silvi practices vis-a-vis their implication on environmental, social, and economic aspects with a view to developing appropriate agri-silivi practices. The choice of tree species, and their location in the farmland is important since they help in improving yields qualitatively and quantitatively. Preliminary enquiry on the different species of trees in the households and the awareness level on the part of the cultivators about the impact of trees on agricultural crops has been carried out. Majority of the farmers is of the opinion that tree shade and root competition acted as deterrent to agricultural crop production.
Punnen Kurien in his study titled Crop losses to rodent pests in Kerala: a pre-harvest survey in selected crop fields and survey on grain storage losses, has made an assessment of the extent of damage caused by rodents to various crops besides documenting the ways in which rodent pests could be controlled.
Through a field study conducted at panchayat level, the project assessed the damages caused in both monoculture and mixed farms, besides analysing the grain storage losses in shops and houses.
Serious damage is found to be caused by rodents in all crops studied. In Cassava, rodent attack was noted in the first day of its planting though the damage was rampant during the seventh and the eighth months of its growth. Two types of damage were found in coconuts, damage at the nursery level plants and at the age of two to three weeks up to the fully ripe stage. In the closely planted coconut gardens rodent attack was found to be more. Damage in rice was found to be high during the growth period of 31-60 days and in sugar-cane the rodents attacked the internodes. The population density of rodents is very high in all the fields and it shows seasonal variations or variations with crop pattern changes due to inter-crop migration. The direct measurable damages in shops due to rodents are negligible but the indirect damages caused by rats, such as contamination of food items and spreading of pathogens, were found to be serious.
The results clearly indicate the high infestation rate of rodents in both fields and shops. Species examination indicates that B.indica takes the major toll in the fields and R.rattus rattus in shops. In all fields except coconut fields, bandicoots account for the principal portion of damage. The study also demonstrated how damage control could be planned and implemented with cost-effective pest management programmes. Though the researcher made some estimates of rodent population, he was unable to draw any conclusion on seasonal variations in density, population cycle, breeding behaviour, and crop preference of rodents. He also documented folk control techniques consisting of folk tricks, folk mechanisms, and folk procedures prevalent among tribesfolk and farmers .
A project by S. Usha Kumari titled Intensity of agro-chemical use in crops of Kerala: a case study of Kattappana and Alathur blocks. It attempts to ascertain the general pattern of agro-chemical use in the area by looking at the variety and intensity of pesticide use for various crops. The study will also examine the level of general awareness of the farmers regarding the toxicity of pesticides. Preliminary observations indicate that farmers do not differentiate between the pests and the diseases and use the same chemical to control both. Widespread application of weedicides to control weeds is the consequence of the dearth of labourers.
Jyothi Krishnan's attempt in the study, Effects of pesticide use in agriculture: awareness and alternatives, is to create awareness about the harmful effects of chemical pesticides on human and environmental health. It also probes into the possibilities of alternatives like less toxic chemical and non-chemical pesticides. Quantification of pesticides used in the sample paddy-fields and interviews with the sample farmers, agricultural workers, and pesticide dealers would be used to realise the objectives.
The study by G. Balachandran Pillai, on Constraints on diffusion and adoption of agro-mechanical technology for rice cultivation in Kerala, attempts to find out the extent to which improved farm implements and machinery have been adopted by the rice cultivators of the State.
The farm-level constraints on the adoption of mechanisation and the possibilities of diffusing the adoption process through organisational interventions are examined. Since the prevailing impression is that there exists general resistance to farm mechanisation in the State, the study attempts to ascertain the perception of the farming community on the desirability of farm mechanisation.
The introduction of Krishi Bhavan was the result of the realisation of the need to make planning and development location-specific. All agricultural activities covering extension and development of agriculture were included under the jurisdiction of the Krishi Bhavans. The study by P. V. Jinraj on Performance evaluation of Krishi Bhavan set-up in Kerala has evaluated the efficacy of the extension activities.
Two sample Krishi Bhavans, one in Anad in Thiruvananthapuram district and the other in Kudali in Kannur district were selected. Two wards were selected from each panchayat to collate information from farmers. Distance from Krishi Bhavan was the criterion employed for selection of the wards. The study observed that the State witnessed an overall improvement in the agricultural scenario in the era of Krishi Bhavans. For rice, the study observes that there is a perceptible increase in the yield in the post-Krishi Bhavan phase. Production of rice does not show, however, any commensurate increase perhaps due to drastic decline in the area under cultivation. An all-round improvement is visible in the area, production, and yield of coconut and pepper; mixed trends are noted in other crops.
The performance of the agricultural sector per se is, however, not the appropriate criterion to judge the efficiency of Krishi Bhavans. The study attempts to examine the efficiency of the Krishi Bhavan on the basis of its principal objective, of the transfer of technology in the form of input-linked extension activity. Effectiveness of technology transfer is studied based on the following parameters: (i) source of information about major cultivation practices; (ii) level of awareness and the extent of adoption of farmers; (iii) participation of farmers in agricultural seminars; and (iv) exposure to agricultural literature. Krishi Bhavan as an agency for technology transfer was found to be ineffective, since it could motivate only a marginal proportion of farmers.
The case studies of two Krishi Bhavans reveals that their functioning was largely confined to routine administrative work and that the quality of extension work was poor. Lack of time for extension work, untimely arrival of funds, frequent transfer of officials, poor quality of planting materials supplied to farmers, and lack of proper database required for preparing plans and schemes were found to be major constraints. Perception of farmers on the quality of services provided by the Krishi Bhavan was found to be poor. The study suggests the need to transform the Krishi Bhavans into regional agro-clinics so as to effectively tackle the problems of pests and outbreak of disease.
The project by Bobby Issac on Production and marketing of vegetables in Kerala: constraints and policy implications examines the economics of vegetable cultivation. The study identifies high cost of production and low productivity as significant constraints in the production of vegetables. On the marketing of vegetables, the study has noted that most of the respondent farmers undertake direct marketing without going for any processing activities. This is expected since farmers sell their produce immediately after the harvest, so as to avoid post-harvest losses. The study suggests improvements to the infrastructural facilities such as cold storage to reduce the post-harvest losses and to increase the shelf life of vegetables.
Sunny Philip, in his research project titled Selection and multiplication of potential traditional varieties of vegetable crops suitable for natural farming for large-scale production and export with farmers' participation, documents the various indigenous practices of vegetable cultivation in Malappuram district. The study also attempts to develop sustainable practices for enhancing productivity of traditional varieties of vegetables. The action component of the project is multiplication of seeds for distribution among interested farmers.
The project by Lila Mathew on Transfer of technology and studies on marketing pattern of jackfruit in Thrissur is an enquiry into the problems related to production and utilisation of jackfruit. The study intends to reduce the post-harvest losses and also disseminate viable processing technology for augmenting income of the growers. The action component of the project comprises a training programme for rural women on jackfruit processing.
Marketing of agricultural products, especially perishable vegetables and fruits, is an important factor in determining the profitability of a crop. The agricultural marketing chain has a large number of links in the form of intermediaries, traders, and commission agents, who exploit the producers. A possible remedy for this exploitation is for the producers to unite and market their output in bulk. The European Community (EC) came forward to support the Kerala Horticultural Development Programme (KHDP).
The study by Roy Mathew on Factors for success or failure of self-help groups of KHDP and Harithasanghams under local self governments in Kerala delineates the process involved in the formation, experimentation, and replication of participatory group activities of vegetable farmers in Kerala. The study uses various participatory methods with focus on the groups of vegetable farmers to assess their group activities organised by KHDP and Harithasanghams.
The ongoing study by Manoj Kumar titled Crop insurance scheme: a case study of banana farmers in Thiruvananthapuram district attempts to evaluate the functioning of the State-sponsored crop insurance scheme. In Kerala, the crop insurance scheme was started in 1995 with the objective of compensating at least in part for losses due to natural calamities. The study aims at evaluating the prevailing crop insurance scheme so as to suggest realistic premium rates.
Kerala's agricultural sector is characterised by production of commercial crops whose demand emanates mostly from external markets. The commodity prices and hence the levels of livelihood of farmers are thus determined by external markets. The study by C. V. Joy on An analysis of issues relating to the small-scale coffee growers of Sulthan Bathery taluk of Wayanad district analyses the problems faced by small-scale coffee growers in the context of decline in product prices and increase in cost of production.
The study by P. K. Kurien on Livelihood issues relating to the beneficiaries of rubber to the poor is an ex post evaluation of the beneficiaries of 'Rubber to the Poor' project funded by Malanadu Development Society. The study analysed the livelihood aspects of farmers who have planted rubber in their sub-marginal holdings under the influence of the project. Participatory research methods and techniques were used to elicit information on the pre-project situation. The picture was reconstructed using largely historical time line and local history. Socio-economic conditions of the rubber holding families were found to be relatively good compared to those of non-adopters, since income from rubber is well distributed in a calendar year. On the environmental front, the study finds, however, that the project has had certain negative externalities.
The study by V. Santhosh titled A preliminary socio-economic study of the cut-flower growers of Thiruvananthapuram district in Kerala is an enquiry into the socio-economic aspects of the cut-flower growers in the State. The study provides insight into the problems faced by growers such as low productivity, increasing cost of production, and inadequate post-harvest preservation and marketing strategies.